Susan Spencer: HOW DO WE BEST EXPLORE
THE WORLDS BEYOND OUR OWN?
Man: I THINK THE HUMAN SPIRIT THAT WE HAVE
CARRIED US INTO SPACE.
IT'S A DESIRE TO EXPLORE.
Spencer: BUT ARE HUMANS CUT OUT TO BE SPACE TRAVELERS?
Man: THE HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT PROGRAM
JUST HAS NOT ADVANCED AS RAPIDLY AS WE THOUGHT.
Man: SO THERE'S CERTAIN PLACES THAT WE SIMPLY CAN'T GO,
AT LEAST NOT RIGHT NOW.
AND ROBOTS OFFER OUR ONLY OPPORTUNITY
AND INSIGHT INTO THOSE LOCATIONS
Spencer: ROBOTS ARE GETTING BETTER, AND CHEAPER.
Man: ROVERS THAT CRAWL AROUND ON SURFACES OF OTHER WORLDS--
THEY REMIND US OF OUR DOGS, OUR CATS.
Spencer: BUT HUMANS ARE FASTER AND SMARTER.
Man: I HAVE A FEELING THAT PEOPLE WANT TO GO.
THEY WILL GO AND LIVE ON THE MOON.
THEY WILL GO TO THE PLANETS.
Man: WE'RE GONNA LAND ON MARS WITH HUMAN BEINGS
SOONER OR LATER.
Spencer: WITH MARS IN OUR SIGHTS,
THE DEBATE IS HEATING UP.
WILL WE EVER CATCH UP TO OUR ROBOTIC CREATIONS?
Man: WE ARE STILL USING THE SAME PROPULSION TECHNOLOGIES
WE USED IN THE 1950s.
Man: WE COULD OVERCOME THOSE TECHNOLOGICAL HURDLES
AND WE COULD GO TO MARS.
Man: HUMAN LIFE SUPPORT,
FOR A ONE TO THREE-YEAR MISSION IN DEEP SPACE, DOES NOT EXIST.
Spencer: HUMANS AND ROBOTS.
THE BRIEF HISTORY, AND THE UNCERTAIN FUTURE
OF SPACE EXPLORATION.
HELLO, I'M SUSAN SPENCER FOR SMITHSONIAN SPOTLIGHT.
FOR HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS,
HUMANS HAVE EXPLORED THE UNKNOWN, ROAMING THE EARTH
IN SEARCH OF KNOWLEDGE AND ADVENTURE.
BUT ONLY RECENTLY HAVE WE BROKEN THROUGH EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
TO EXPLORE SPACE.
IN THE LONG SPAN OF HUMAN HISTORY,
OUR TIME IN SPACE IS BUT A BLIP.
WE'VE LAUNCHED MACHINES AND WE'VE LAUNCHED OURSELVES.
AND WE'VE LEARNED A LOT FROM BOTH.
BUT THE BIGGEST QUESTION OF THE FUTURE IS
SHOULD WE KEEP GOING OURSELVES
OR SHOULD WE JUST LET ROBOTS DO THE JOB?
Houston: COLUMBIA, HOUSTON, OVER.
Columbia: HOUSTON, COLUMBIA READING YOU LOUD AND CLEAR.
Houston: STAND BY, MIKE. HOW DID IT GO? OVER.
Columbia: EVERYTHING'S GOING JUST SWIMMINGLY, BEAUTIFUL.
Houston: GREAT, WE'RE STANDING BY FOR EAGLE.
Spencer: AS THE CREW OF APOLLO 11
APPROACHES THE MOON FOR ITS HISTORIC FIRST LANDING,
IT HAS COMPANY.
A RUSSIAN ROBOT CALLED LUNA 15 IS ALSO IN LUNAR ORBIT,
LOOKING FOR A PLACE TO LAND.
BRITISH SCIENTISTS ARE TRACKING BOTH APOLLO AND LUNA SIGNALS,
AND ARE CALLING IT LIKE A SPORTS MATCH.
Man: THE SOUNDS WE CAN HEAR IN THE BACKGROUND
ARE THE COMMANDS FROM LUNA 15
AND ALSO THE VOICES FROM THE APOLLO 11 SPACECRAFT
NOW IN ORBIT AROUND THE MOON.
Spencer: BRITAIN RELAYS THE INTELLIGENCE TO AMERICA,
AND THERE IS SOME SUSPICION
THAT THE RUSSIANS ARE TRYING TO UPSTAGE APOLLO 11.
THE LUNA LANDER IS EQUIPPED TO SCOOP UP A SOIL SAMPLE
AND LAUNCH IT BACK TO EARTH--
PERHAPS RETURNING A PIECE OF THE MOON BEFORE THE AMERICANS.
ARMSTRONG AND ALDRIN ARE IN A RACE WITH A ROBOT.
Man: HERE, MEN FROM PLANET EARTH FIRST SET FOOT UPON THE MOON.
Man: THE AMERICAN ASTRONAUTS ARE...START TO WALK ON THE MOON.
MEANWHILE, THERE HAS JUST BEEN A RUMOR FROM A SOURCE IN MOSCOW
THAT THIS LUNA IS GOING TO LAND THIS EVENING.
Spencer: AS THE AMERICAN ASTRONAUTS ARE MAKING HISTORY,
THE RUSSIAN ROBOT BEGINS ITS DESCENT.
Spencer: BUT INSTEAD OF A SOFT LANDING,
LUNA 15 CRASHES ONTO THE MOON'S SURFACE,
DESTROYING THE ROBOTIC LANDER.
THE SUCCESS OF APOLLO 11 IS HISTORY WE ALL KNOW.
BUT WHAT HAPPENED NEXT IS HISTORY ONLY RECENTLY REVEALED.
THE NEXT LUNA MISSION DID SUCCEED,
AND IT RETURNED THE WORLD'S THIRD BATCH OF LUNAR SAMPLES,
AFTER APOLLO 11 AND 12.
NOT BAD FOR A ROBOT.
BUT THE SOVIETS WEREN'T DONE.
THEY UPPED THE ROBOTIC ANTE WITH A ROVER CALLED LUNOKHOD.
AS APOLLO MISSIONS CAME AND WENT FROM THEIR FIXED LANDING SITES,
THE LUNOKHOD ROVER WANDERED FOR ALMOST A YEAR,
TRAVELING SIX AND HALF MILES, TRANSMITTING IMAGES AND DATA,
ALL WHILE BEING CONTROLLED
BY AN EARTHBOUND RUSSIAN WITH A JOYSTICK.
SO IF YOU THINK APOLLO WAS AHEAD OF ITS TIME,
AT LEAST TIP YOUR HAT TO THE SOVIETS FOR THEIR ROBOTS.
THE DEBATE BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE HAS RAGED EVER SINCE.
FOR OVER 50 YEARS, OUR EXPLORATION OF SPACE
HAS BEEN A JOINT VENTURE-- HUMANS AND ROBOTS.
Spudis: NOW, KEEP IN MIND, THERE WAS NO MASTER PLAN.
PEOPLE DIDN'T SIT DOWN AND LAY OUT A BIG SHEET ON THE TABLE
AND SAY, "ALL RIGHT, WE'RE GONNA SEND A HUMAN HERE IN 10 YEARS
AND A MACHINE THERE IN 15 YEARS."
IT WAS DEVELOPED PIECEMEAL
AND DRIVEN PARTLY BY CAPABILITY RATHER THAN GOAL.
Spencer: ACTUALLY, AT THE BEGINNING,
IT WAS DRIVEN BY POLITICS.
THE COLD WAR DROVE THE SPACE RACE,
AND IT PROPELLED BOTH AMERICA AND THE SOVIET UNION
TO PUSH THE BOUNDARIES
FOR MILITARY ADVANTAGE AND FOR BRAGGING RIGHTS.
Aldrin: WHAT CAN WE DO THAT CAN MATCH
WHAT THE RUSSIANS APPARENTLY ARE DOING?
Spencer: WHAT COULD WE LAUNCH INTO SPACE?
A SATELLITE.
A DOG.
A CHIMP.
A HUMAN.
YURI GAGARIN.
VALENTINA TERESHKOVA.
ALAN SHEPARD.
JOHN GLENN.
Glenn: ROGER, ZERO G AND I FEEL FINE.
CAPSULE IS TURNING AROUND.
Spencer: THE UNITED STATES GOT PRETTY GOOD
AT PUTTING PEOPLE INTO LOW EARTH ORBIT
WITH THE MERCURY AND GEMINI PROGRAMS.
Man: YOU HAVE JUST EXCEEDED
THE WORLD'S MANNED SPACEFLIGHT ENDURANCE RECORD.
Spencer: BUT WITH THE MOON AS THE ULTIMATE GOAL,
ENGINEERS GRAPPLED WITH HOW TO GET THERE
WITHOUT BLOWING UP FIRST.
Virts: YOU HAVE GO 17,500 MILES AN HOUR
JUST TO GET INTO EARTH ORBIT.
AND YOU HAVE TO GO 25,000 MILES AN HOUR
JUST TO LEAVE EARTH.
IF YOU'RE GOING TO THE MOON, MARS, JUPITER,
WHEREVER YOU'RE GOING,
YOU NEED TO GO AT LEAST 25,000 MILES AN HOUR
JUST TO GET AWAY FROM HERE.
THAT'S REALLY, REALLY HARD TO DO.
Spencer: TO GET HUMANS ALL THE WAY TO THE MOON
WOULD TAKE A MASSIVE AMOUNT OF THRUST.
THE ANSWER--A MASSIVE ROCKET.
Duke: WELL, THE SATURN WAS A BIG VEHICLE--
IT WAS 363 FEET TALL.
AND IT WAS 33 FEET IN DIAMETER.
AND IT WEIGHED 6.5 MILLION POUNDS.
Spencer: THE SATURN V ROCKET WAS THEN, AND REMAINS TODAY,
THE BIGGEST ROCKET EVER LAUNCHED.
Man: T MINUS 30 SECONDS AND COUNTING.
Spencer: APOLLO 4 WAS A TEST FLIGHT--
THE VERY FIRST LAUNCH OF THE SATURN V.
THE ROCKET WAS FILLED WITH 89 TRUCKLOADS OF LIQUID OXYGEN,
28 TRUCKLOADS OF LIQUID HYDROGEN,
AND 27 RAIL CAR LOADS OF REFINED KEROSENE.
NEVER BEFORE HAD HUMANS LIT SUCH A BIG CANDLE.
THE MEDIA, INCLUDING WALTER CRONKITE,
OBSERVED FROM FOUR MILES AWAY.
Man: WE HAVE IGNITION, ALL ENGINES ARE RUNNING.
WE HAVE LIFTOFF.
Cronkite: THE BUILDING'S SHAKING.
OH, IT'S TERRIFIC, THE BUILDING'S SHAKING!
Spencer: CEILING TILES FELL AROUND CRONKITE
AS THE ROCKET ROARED THROUGH THE STRATOSPHERE.
Garvin: THE PEOPLE THAT FLEW ON THE BIG SATURN Vs,
I MEAN, THEY WERE RIDING INCREDIBLE ROCKETS OF FIRE,
MOVE 7.5 MILLION POUNDS OF THRUST.
I MEAN, COME ON, IT'S BEYOND ANY ROLLER COASTER.
I MEAN, THE SHAKING ALONE WAS APPARENTLY RATHER INTERESTING.
Duke: THE INITIAL ACCELERATION WAS VERY, VERY SLOW,
BUT THE VIBRATION FROM SIDE TO SIDE
WAS EXTREMELY VIOLENT.
WE WERE STRAPPED IN TIGHTLY, FORTUNATELY,
AND WE WERE JUST SHAKING IN THE SPACECRAFT.
MY FIRST THOUGHT--
"SOMETHING'S WRONG WITH THIS THING."
Spencer: WHY DO IT?
WHY RISK LIFE AND LIMB RIDING ON TOP OF GIANT FIREBALLS?
CERTAINLY, THERE'S THE SCIENCE.
EVERY SINGLE HUMAN MISSION HAS INCLUDED EXPERIMENTS,
FROM THE MERCURY PROGRAM...
Man: EXPERIMENTS THAT CANNOT BE PERFORMED ON EARTH...
Spencer: TO THE SPACE SHUTTLE...
Astronaut: DOING THE NATIONAL LAB PATHFINDER...
Spencer: TO THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION.
Astronaut: WE'RE DOING THE FIRST SEED-TO-SEED EXPERIMENT
WITH SOYBEANS IN SPACE.
Spencer: BUT TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC,
WHAT SEEMS TO MATTER MOST IS JUST BEING IN SPACE.
Virts: WE LAUNCHED AT NIGHTTIME IN FEBRUARY 2010.
JUST A COUPLE MINUTES INTO THE FLIGHT, I GOT THE VIEW.
Spudis: I THINK THERE'S THE SHEER ADVENTURE OF IT.
IT'S AN EMOTIONAL APPEAL, A SORT OF A GUT APPEAL.
McCurdy: WE HAVE A HUGE CULTURAL FOUNDATION
THAT EXTOLS SPACE TRAVEL.
AND I THINK IT JUST CAPTURED PEOPLE'S IMAGINATION.
Duke: I THINK THE HUMAN SPIRIT CARRIED US INTO SPACE.
IT'S CARRIED US UNDER THE OCEANS.
IT'S CARRIED US INTO THE CAVES.
IT'S CARRIED US TO THE TOP OF THE MOUNTAINS.
IT'S A DESIRE TO EXPLORE.
Garvin: THE WOMEN AND MEN THAT HAVE FLOWN IN SPACE,
THEY'RE PARTS OF US.
THEY'RE LIKE THE RENAISSANCE EXPLORERS--
AND REALLY TOOK TREMENDOUS RISKS
RIDING AT THE HAIRY EDGE OF TECHNOLOGY AS THEY DID.
Spencer: CONSIDER THE FLIGHT OF APOLLO 8,
CARRYING THE FIRST HUMAN BEINGS EVER TO LEAVE EARTH'S ORBIT.
THE DARK SIDE OF THE MOON? NO ONE EVER SEEN IT BEFORE.
Kranz: NO. THIS WAS A MISSION FOR THE AGES.
IN FACT, IT WAS PROBABLY THE RISKIEST MISSION
THAT WE'D EVER FLOWN.
Spencer: THERE WAS LITTLE MARGIN FOR ERROR
AS APOLLO 8 APPROACHED THE MOON.
WITH ONLY ONE ENGINE PROPELLING IT AND NO BACKUP,
IT HAD TO WORK.
Kranz: AND I COULD WATCH
AND FEEL THE EMOTION OF THIS ROOM
AS WE WENT INTO LUNAR ORBIT.
Spencer: AS THE ASTRONAUTS DISAPPEARED
AROUND THE DARK SIDE OF THE MOON,
THEY COULDN'T SEE OR COMMUNICATE WITH THE EARTH.
BUT WHEN IT CAME BACK INTO VIEW, THEY HAD WORDS OF INSPIRATION
FOR THE LITTLE BLUE PLANET HOVERING IN THE DISTANCE.
Astronaut: IN THE BEGINNING,
GOD CREATED THE HEAVEN AND THE EARTH.
AND THE EARTH WAS WITHOUT FORM, AND VOID...
Kranz: THE BEAUTY OF THE THING JUST CAPTURED US,
AND WE WERE, BASICALLY,
THE TEARS CAME TO MY EYES AND I THOUGHT,
"MY GOD, WE'RE SO PRIVILEGED TO BE AMERICANS
AND TO BE IN THIS ROOM WORKING THIS MISSION."
Spencer: THEIR PHOTOGRAPH OF EARTH FROM AFAR
REMAINS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT IMAGES
IN HUMAN HISTORY.
IT BECAME A SYMBOL OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT.
AND TO A NATION SUFFERING THROUGH THE TURBULENT '60s,
IT GAVE MUCH-NEEDED PERSPECTIVE.
UPON RETURNING TO EARTH, APOLLO 8 ASTRONAUT FRANK BORMAN
RECEIVED A TELEGRAM FROM A STRANGER
THAT SIMPLY SAID: "THANK YOU FOR SAVING 1968."
Man: AND IT HAS CLEARED THE TOWER...
Spencer: EVERY SINGLE TIME A SHIP LEAVES THE EARTH,
IT STILL STIRS THE SOUL.
BUT IT CAN ALSO BREAK THE HEART.
Garvin: SETBACK AND TRAGEDY ARE PART OF ALL HUMAN EXPLORATION.
IT'S BEEN THAT WAY IN HISTORY.
AND THESE TRAGEDIES ARE GRIPPING.
THEY'RE PARALYZING.
LOSS OF LIFE IN SPACE IS-- IT'S BEYOND NEVER EASY.
IT'S--IT'S UNACCEPTABLE.
BUT, AT THE LIMITS OF OUR CAPABILITIES
TECHNOLOGICALLY IN ENGINEERING, THINGS HAPPEN.
SO, WITH TRAGEDY COMES, I THINK,
A REBOUND OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT.
WE HAVE TO REVEL IN THEIR COURAGE
AND REMEMBER THEM FOR THE INSPIRING POWER,
THAT THEY WENT KNOWING THE RISKS.
Spencer: WHILE THOSE TRAGEDIES LAID BARE THE STAKES
OF HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT,
IT WAS A NEAR TRAGEDY
THAT BECAME PERHAPS THE MOST POWERFUL STORY
OF HOW PRECARIOUS THESE MISSIONS CAN BE.
APOLLO 13.
Astronaut: HOUSTON, WE'VE HAD A PROBLEM.
Spencer: ON THE WAY TO THE MOON, AN OXYGEN TANK EXPLODED.
Duke: AND WHEN IT BLEW UP,
A PIECE OF SHRAPNEL WENT THROUGH THE FAIRING
AND PUNCTURED THE PLUMBING OF THE OTHER TANK,
AND IT LEAKED OUT OVER SEVERAL HOURS.
AND SO, NOW THEY WERE WITHOUT ELECTRICAL POWER.
THEY WERE WITHOUT OXYGEN.
Spencer: THE CREW WAS FORCED TO USE THE ATTACHED LUNAR MODULE
AS A LIFEBOAT.
Duke: WE HAD A LUNAR MODULE THAT WAS DESIGNED
FOR TWO GUYS FOR THREE DAYS.
NOW, WE GOT THREE GUYS FOR FOUR DAYS.
HOW DO YOU MAKE IT LAST?
AND JOHN YOUNG AND I AND OTHERS--
ENDED UP MISSION CONTROL AND IN THE SIMULATOR,
WE FIGURED ALL THAT OUT.
GOT 'EM GOING BACK.
Spencer: THIS DRAMA WAS TAKING PLACE ON AN UNSEEN STAGE
THOUSAND OF MILES FROM EARTH.
BUT PEOPLE WERE RIVETED.
BLANKET TV COVERAGE.
SPECIAL EDITION NEWSPAPERS.
THE WORLD HELD ITS COLLECTIVE BREATH
UNTIL AMAZINGLY, AND SOME SAY IMPROBABLY, THEY MADE IT HOME.
Garvin: THESE WERE VOYAGES
PROBABLY 50 TO 100 YEARS AHEAD OF THEIR TIME
AT THE LIMITS OF TECHNOLOGY AT THE TIME,
AND YET THEY WORK.
HAD THAT BEEN A ROBOTIC MISSION,
IT WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN RECOVERED.
SO, THE FACT THAT THREE YOUNG MEN CAME BACK
FROM A MILLION-KILOMETER TRIP IS PRETTY AMAZING.
Spencer: YOU MIGHT CALL IT
THE MOST SUCCESSFUL FAILURE IN HUMAN SPACE TRAVEL.
APOLLO PROVED WE COULD GET INTO SPACE.
BUT NASA WANTED A BETTER WAY TO GET THERE MORE OFTEN
AND COME BACK MORE EASILY.
Garvin: ONE OF THE BIG QUESTIONS WAS,
"HOW CAN WE ACHIEVE BETTER ACCESS TO SPACE?"
AND HAVING SOMETHING REUSABLE
THAT COULD SERVE AS A TRUCK TO CARRY OUR STUFF THERE,
TO GIVE US A PLACE TO BE WHILE WE'RE LEARNING TO DEPLOY IT
SEEMED LIKE A GREAT IDEA.
IN FACT, IT WAS.
Spencer: THE SHUTTLE REALLY WAS THE STUFF OF SCIENCE FICTION--
A SPACE PLANE.
Virts: IT'S ALMOST UNBELIEVABLE
TO PUT A MORE THAN 200,000-POUND AIRPLANE INTO SPACE.
AND THEN HAVE IT FLOAT AND OPERATE IN SPACE
LIKE A SPACESHIP.
AND THEN A COUPLE WEEKS LATER HAVE IT COME BACK TO EARTH.
Garvin: 140-SOME FLIGHTS LATER,
IT'S THE MOST SUCCESSFUL LAUNCH VEHICLE
IN THE HISTORY OF HUMANKIND.
SO I THINK THE SHUTTLE, IN THE HISTORY OF SPACEFLIGHT,
WILL GO DOWN AS ONE OF THE MOST REMARKABLE
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS EVER BUILT BY HUMAN BEINGS.
Spencer: BETWEEN THE AMERICAN SHUTTLE AND THE RUSSIAN SOYUZ,
WE HAVE MOVED AN INCREDIBLE AMOUNT OF STUFF INTO SPACE.
ENOUGH TO BUILD THE MIR SPACE STATION...
THEN THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION.
Virts: HOPEFULLY OVER THE NEXT DECADE
WE'LL BE SENDING ASTRONAUTS TO THE STATION
WHO WILL DO SCIENCE AND RESEARCH
ON THINGS THAT'LL BENEFIT US ON EARTH
AS WELL AS HELP US EXPLORE SPACE.
Spencer: WITH THE HELP OF SPACE STATIONS,
HUMANS ARE ROUTINELY LIVING AND WORKING IN SPACE.
BUT WE HAVEN'T LEFT EARTH ORBIT
SINCE THE LAST APOLLO MISSION TO THE MOON IN 1972.
SINCE THEN, WE'VE BEEN TETHERED TO THE PLANET.
WE'RE PUTTING ON A LOT OF SPACE MILES,
BUT WE'RE GOING IN CIRCLES.
IN THE MEANTIME, ROBOTS HAVE BLAZED THE TRAIL.
OUR ROBOTIC CREATIONS HAVE GONE
TO THE FARTHEST REACHES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
BUT ONE OF THE MOST SUCCESSFUL PROBES OF ALL
ALMOST NEVER GOT OFF THE GROUND.
McCurdy: IN THE LATE 1960s,
SPACE SCIENTISTS AND A LOT OF PEOPLE IN NASA
WANTED TO TAKE A GRAND TOUR OF THE OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM,
TO GO BY THE OUTER PLANETS.
IT CAME UP AT THE SAME TIME AS THE SPACE SHUTTLE,
AND THE WHITE HOUSE AND A LOT OF PEOPLE IN CONGRESS
SAID NO TO NASA.
"YOU CAN'T DO IT.
YOU CAN'T HAVE BOTH THE SPACE SHUTTLE
AND THE GRAND TOUR."
SPACE SCIENTISTS WERE ABSOLUTELY DEVASTATED.
CONGRESS DID APPROPRIATE ENOUGH MONEY,
ABOUT A THIRD OF THE BUDGET
FOR A MISSION WHICH WAS CALLED JUPITER-SATURN.
AND THAT BECAME THE VOYAGER MISSION.
Spencer: VOYAGER'S TWO PROBES TOOK ADVANTAGE
OF A UNIQUE ALIGNMENT OF THE OUTER PLANETS,
WHICH OCCURS ONLY ONCE EVERY 176 YEARS.
IT'S PATH BECAME KNOWN AS THE "GRAND TOUR."
Garvin: AND THE IDEA WAS LAUNCH ONE THING,
FLY BY JUPITER AND CONDUCT A FLY-BY TOUR,
A DRIVE-BY SCIENCE MISSION OF ITS MAJOR SATELLITES,
GO ON TO SATURN, MOVE ON TO URANUS
AND FINISH AT NEPTUNE.
Grant: UP UNTIL THE GRAND TOUR,
WE REALLY DIDN'T HAVE THAT MUCH OF A SENSE
OF WHAT WAS OUT THERE.
WE KNEW WHERE THE PLANETS WERE,
BUT WE DIDN'T KNOW MUCH ABOUT THEM.
AND THIS WAS OUR FIRST LOOK.
Spencer: BEFORE VOYAGER AND THE PIONEER PROBES THAT PRECEDED IT,
THE BEST PICTURES OF JUPITER WE HAD FROM EARTH-BASED TELESCOPES
LOOKED LIKE THIS.
THE GREAT RED SPOT WAS A BIG MYSTERY.
BUT VOYAGER REVEALED DAZZLING DETAILS
OF A STORM THE SIZE OF SEVERAL EARTHS,
RAGING FOR 200 YEARS OR MORE.
WITH IMAGES LIKE THIS,
VOYAGER RE-WROTE THE BOOK ON OUR OWN SOLAR SYSTEM.
Garvin: I REMEMBER VIVIDLY WHEN VOYAGER 1
GOT TO JUPITER IN 1979,
AND I SAT WATCHING CLOSED-CIRCUIT NASA TV.
AND I WATCHED THE FIRST IMAGES COME BACK
OF THE GALILEAN SATELLITE KNOWN AS IO.
AND THERE WERE THESE BLACK, WORMY THINGS,
AND THE LEAD SCIENTISTS THEN,
SOME OF THE GREAT STARS IN PLANETARY EXPLORATION,
WERE LOOKING AND SAYING, "WHAT THE HECK IS THIS?"
THEY EXPECTED THIS TO BE A MOON-LIKE OBJECT
POCKMARKED WITH CRATERS, MAYBE CRACKS.
AND THEY SAW THESE BLACK, WORMY THINGS
AND THESE ORANGES AND YELLOWS.
AND IT REWROTE THE TEXTBOOKS.
THAT'S DISCOVERY.
Grant: AND WE NOW KNOW THAT, FOR EXAMPLE, EUROPA,
ONE OF THE MOONS AROUND JUPITER,
IS PROBABLY ONE OF THE MOST HABITABLE PLACES
IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM BEYOND OUR OWN EARTH.
WE UNDERSTAND THAT THERE'S LIQUID WATER
AND AN OCEAN BENEATH THAT SHELL.
SO ALL OF THAT UNDERSTANDING--
THE GROUNDWORK FOR THAT WAS LAID BY THE GRAND TOUR.
Garvin: IT TRANSFORMED US
FROM AN ASTRONOMICAL AGE OF PLANETARY EXPLORATION
INTO A SPACECRAFT AGE.
Spencer: MOUNTAINS OF DATA, GALLERIES OF IMAGES,
ALL FROM TWO PROBES BUILT IN THE 1970s,
BUT STILL ALIVE AND TRANSMITTING
FROM THE OUTER REACHES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
VOYAGER 1 IS NOW THE FARTHEST MANMADE OBJECT FROM EARTH,
OVER 10 BILLION MILES AWAY.
McCurdy: AND IT JUST SHOWED HOW FAR, EVEN BACK THEN,
WE WERE ABLE TO PUSH OUR TECHNOLOGY,
OUR ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGY
Spencer: THERE HAVE BEEN MANY OTHER
SUCCESSFUL ROBOTIC SPACE EXPLORERS,
AND TOGETHER THEY'VE SWUNG BY
EVERY PLANET IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM...
EXCEPT THE RECENTLY DEMOTED PLUTO.
YOU CAN LEARN A LOT BY JUST FLYING BY A PLANET.
BUT YOU CAN LEARN A LOT MORE BY LANDING ON IT.
Garvin: ROBOTIC MISSIONS IN MANY WAYS
ARE EXTENSIONS OF OURSELVES.
AND PEOPLE, IN GENERAL, TEND TO GRAVITATE
TO THE ONES THAT ARE THE MOST HUMAN,
THE MOST LIKE THINGS WE KNOW.
ROVERS THAT CRAWL AROUND ON SURFACES OF OTHER WORLDS--
THEY REMIND US OF OUR DOGS, OUR CATS.
AND WE'VE FLOWN SEVERAL OF THESE KINDS OF MISSIONS
PARTICULARLY TO THE PLANET MARS.
Spencer: THE MOST RECENT MARS ROVERS, SPIRIT AND OPPORTUNITY,
HAVE RAISED THE BAR FOR ROBOT PERFORMANCE.
Grant: WELL, THE ROVERS WERE DESIGNED
TO GO SOMETHING LIKE 600 METERS DURING THEIR LIFETIME.
Aldrin: THEY WERE ONLY EXPECTED TO LAST 90 DAYS.
THEY'VE BEEN THERE FIVE YEARS.
Grant: AND IT'S OPENED DOORS TO WHOLE NEW KINDS OF EXPLORATION
THAT WE NEVER ANTICIPATED.
McCurdy: THOSE ROVERS, FOR THE SIZE THAT THEY ARE,
HAVE ENORMOUS CAPABILITIES.
THEY HAVE THE CAPABILITIES OF A CONVOY OF SCHOOL BUSES.
Spencer: THEY HAVE ROBOT ARMS THAT CAN DRILL AND GRAB.
THEY HAVE INSTRUMENTS THAT CAN SEE IN WAVELENGTHS WE CANNOT.
AND EVEN THOUGH THEY'RE ROBOTS,
WE SOMETIMES IMAGINE THEY HAVE HUMAN TRAITS.
Grant: THEY TYPICALLY HAVE LITTLE QUIRKS INVOLVED
IN HOW THEY OPERATE.
AND A LOT OF TIMES,
WHEN YOU'RE WORKING WITH THEM ON A DAY TO DAY BASIS,
YOU ALMOST SENSE THAT THEY DEVELOP A PERSONALITY.
AND YOU BECOME ATTACHED TO THAT,
JUST LIKE YOU DO WITH YOUR OWN CHILDREN.
Spencer: WHETHER IT'S BECAUSE WE FIND THEM CUTE
OR BECAUSE WE'RE DAZZLED BY THE SCIENCE,
THE ROVERS HAVE INSPIRED US.
Grant: I KNOW THAT WHEN THE MARS ROVERS LANDED--
THE AMOUNT OF INTEREST BY THE PUBLIC IN THOSE MISSIONS
WAS JUST OVERWHELMING.
I MEAN, PEOPLE REALLY DO CARE.
THEY REALLY ARE INTERESTED.
Spencer: CONSIDER THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL MARS LANDER--VIKING.
Grant: VIKING WAS SOMETHING THAT, WHEN I WAS A TEENAGER,
WAS JUST GOING ON.
I WAS 16 IN 1976.
AND IT JUST SEEMED TO ME TO BE SO EXCITING.
IT WAS SO DIFFERENT
THAN ANYTHING I'D EVER HEARD OF BEFORE.
AND IT FOLLOWED ON THE HEELS OF THE APOLLO LANDINGS.
AND SO, AS I WAS GROWING UP, IT SEEMED TO ME, "HERE WE GO.
HERE WE GO INTO THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
WE'RE GONNA DO ALL THIS EXPLORATION."
Garvin: AND OVER THE COURSE OF 1976 TO 1982,
WE CONDUCTED SIX YEARS OF IN SITU EXPLORATION
ON ANOTHER WORLD FOR THE FIRST TIME.
AND THEY WERE SO GOOD
THAT THEY ALMOST STALLED MARS EXPLORATION
'CAUSE THEY GAVE US SUCH RICH DATA.
SO VIKING WAS THE PATHFINDER.
Spencer: SINCE VIKING, ADVANCES IN ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGY
HAVE ALLOWED VERY SOPHISTICATED SPACECRAFT
TO DO EVEN MORE AMAZING THINGS
WHILE WE STAY HOME AND GUIDE THEM.
Garvin: THE ROBOTS MAY NOT GET THE FANFARE
THE HUMAN MISSIONS GET, AND RIGHTFULLY SO--
THEY'RE ROBOTS, FOR GOD'S SAKE.
BUT THEY WILL REWRITE OUR KIDS' TEXTBOOKS.
Spencer: ANOTHER GRAND TOUR OF THE OUTER PLANETS IS POSSIBLE
WHEN THEY ALIGN ALMOST 150 YEARS FROM NOW.
WILL WE SEND ANOTHER PROBE, OR WILL WE SEND ASTRONAUTS?
IF OUR HISTORY OF PREDICTING THE FUTURE IS ANY GUIDE,
WE HAVE NO IDEA.
McCurdy: THERE'S A WONDERFUL ARTICLE IN COLLIER'S MAGAZINE,
MARCH 22, 1952, ISSUE OF COLLIER'S MAGAZINE
THAT HAS A BEAUTIFUL DIORAMA PAINTED BY THE HOLLYWOOD
SPECIAL EFFECTS ARTIST CHESLEY BONESTELL,
SHOWS A LARGE ROTATING SPACE STATION,
SHOWS A WINGED SPACE SHUTTLE.
AND IN THE MIDDLE, THERE'S AN OBJECT
THAT NOBODY KNOWS WHAT IT IS.
EVERYBODY'S FORGOTTEN.
IT'S THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE.
IN 1952, WE'RE THINKING...
Spencer:1952?
McCurdy: ABOUT THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE.
AND ON THAT INSTRUMENT ARE ASTRONAUTS WORKING ON IT.
Spencer: IT'S AN AMAZING PIECE OF SCIENCE FICTION ART
THAT HAS BECOME SCIENCE FACT.
EXCEPT FOR ONE LITTLE DETAIL
ABOUT THE ASTRONAUTS HOVERING AROUND THE TELESCOPE.
McCurdy: THEY'RE REPLACING THE FILM IN THE SPACE TELESCOPE.
THE TECHNOLOGY AT THAT TIME
REQUIRED ASTRONAUTS TO RETURN FILM TO EARTH FOR DEVELOPING.
Spencer: THEY PREDICTED SPACE PLANES, A SPACE STATION,
AND A SPACE TELESCOPE.
BUT THEY COULDN'T PREDICT DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
THE MIDDLE OF THE 20th CENTURY
WAS FULL OF HOPE FOR SPACE EXPLORATION.
LONG BEFORE WE ACTUALLY MADE IT INTO SPACE,
WE SPENT A LOT OF TIME DREAMING ABOUT IT.
SOME OF IT CAME TRUE.
AND SOME OF IT DIDN'T.
WHAT HASN'T GONE SO WELL?
McCurdy: THE HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT PROGRAM
JUST HAS NOT ADVANCED AS RAPIDLY AS WE THOUGHT IT WAS.
IN 1969, WHEN NASA PROPOSED THEIR SPACE STATION,
THEY HAD 50 TO 150 PEOPLE ON IT.
WE'RE HARD-PRESSED TO PUT SIX PEOPLE
ON THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION.
SO CLEARLY, PEOPLE HAVE NOT GONE INTO SPACE
IN THE NUMBERS THAT WE THOUGHT THEY WOULD.
Spencer: THE BIG PROBLEM IS TRANSPORTATION.
AND IN SPACE, TRANSPORTATION MEANS ROCKETS.
McCurdy: WE ARE STILL USING THE SAME PROPULSION TECHNOLOGIES
WE USED IN THE 1950s.
THAT'S THE HUGE BARRIER FOR HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT.
WE CAN DO THE COMMUNICATIONS.
WE CAN DO THE IMAGING.
WE CAN DO RELIABILITY AND SOLID STATE TRANSISTORS,
AND WE'RE STILL STUCK USING THE SAME TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES
THAT WE ESSENTIALLY HAD 50 YEARS AGO.
Spencer: IN OTHER WORDS, WE'RE LAUNCHING
REMARKABLE AND DELICATE 21st CENTURY TECHNOLOGY
WITH 20th CENTURY BRUTE FORCE.
AND WHEN LAUNCHING HUMANS,
WE NEED TO PROVIDE A LOT MORE THAN A ROBOT WOULD NEED.
Astronaut: THIS IS WHAT I WAS LOOKING FOR--RAVIOLI.
Garvin: PEOPLE REQUIRE THINGS TO DO THEIR JOB IN SPACE--
WATER, FOOD, WASTE MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATIONS,
AND ALL THOSE THINGS FOR PEOPLE
ARE MUCH HARDER THAN THOSE FOR ROBOTS.
ROBOTS DON'T CARE IF THEY DON'T HAVE A LOT OF WATER.
PEOPLE NEED TEN POUNDS OF WATER A DAY IN SPACE.
SO FOR EVERY POUND OR KILOGRAM YOU LAUNCH
FROM THE EARTH'S SURFACE TO SPACE, YOU PAY FOR THAT.
Spencer: ON PAPER, THE SPACE SHUTTLE
WAS SUPPOSED TO SOLVE THE HUMAN TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM.
McCurdy: THE NASA SPACE SHUTTLE WAS DESIGNED
TO CUT THE COST OF SPACEFLIGHT BY A FACTOR OF TEN.
AND IF IT HAD DONE THAT,
IT WOULD HAVE BEEN A GREAT ADVANCE IN HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT.
AND IT DIDN'T HAPPEN.
Spencer: IN FACT, FEWER THAN 600 HUMAN BEINGS
HAVE BEEN INTO SPACE.
Garvin: AND I THINK THE EXPECTATIONS
OF WHAT WE WERE TALKING ABOUT IN THE HISTORY OF SPACE EXPLORATION
IN THE '50s, COLLIER'S MAGAZINE, AND WHAT WE ENDED UP DOING,
WELL, WE DIDN'T MEET THOSE EXPECTATIONS, EITHER.
BECAUSE IT'S NEVER AS YOU THINK IT WILL BE.
Spencer: PERHAPS THAT'S BECAUSE WHEN PEOPLE DREAMT
ABOUT OUR FUTURE IN SPACE,
THEY NEVER DREAMT ABOUT CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS.
Rockefeller: I WANT ORDER IN THIS HEARING ROOM.
Spencer: NASA'S DIRECTION IS SET
BY THE PRESIDENT AND THE CONGRESS.
SO WHEN POLITICIANS CHANGE, THE DIRECTION CAN CHANGE.
BUSH SET ONE COURSE.
Bush: TODAY I ANNOUNCE A NEW PLAN TO EXPLORE SPACE
AND EXTEND A HUMAN PRESENCE ACROSS OUR SOLAR SYSTEM.
Spencer: OBAMA SET ANOTHER.
Obama: YES, PURSUING THIS NEW STRATEGY
WILL REQUIRE THAT WE REVISE THE OLD STRATEGY.
Spencer: AS A RESULT, SOME THINK NASA IS ADRIFT.
WE NOW, ACCORDING TO PRESIDENT OBAMA,
WE'RE GONNA HAVE A NEW DIRECTION, RIGHT?
HE'S TALKING ABOUT DOING MANNED MISSIONS IN A SMART WAY.
WHAT DO YOU TAKE THAT TO MEAN?
McCurdy: WELL, WHAT HE HAS SAID IS THAT HE WANTS NASA
TO GET OUT OF THE BUSINESS OF RUNNING AN AIRLINE,
THAT IS OF TAKING ASTRONAUTS TO AND FROM LOW EARTH ORBIT
AND TO TURN THAT OVER TO THE COMMERCIAL SECTOR,
AND IT'LL ALLOW NASA THEN TO CONCENTRATE
ON REAL EXPLORATION FURTHER ON OUT.
Spencer: BUT WITHOUT A WAY TO GET PEOPLE INTO SPACE,
HOW DO WE GET TO THE SPACE STATION?
Virts: THE SPACE SHUTTLE PROGRAM'S ENDING.
AND SO THE AMERICANS THAT FLY INTO SPACE--
WE'RE GONNA BE LAUNCHING ABOUT FOUR PEOPLE A YEAR
ON THE RUSSIAN SOYUZ.
Spencer: THE SOYUZ IS A WORKHORSE.
IT CARRIES HUMANS AND CARGO INTO SPACE ON A REGULAR BASIS,
AND IT'S CHEAPER TO LAUNCH THAN THE SPACE SHUTTLE.
BUT PUTTING AMERICANS ON A RUSSIAN ROCKET
DOESN'T SIT WELL WITH MANY IN THE AMERICAN SPACE PROGRAM.
Aldrin: WHAT WE SHOULD HAVE DONE IS TO START
ON A CREDIBLE REPLACEMENT FOR THE SHUTTLE.
WE DIDN'T DO THAT.
AND WE'RE GONNA HAVE TO GET
UP TO OUR $100 BILLION SPACE STATION
BY HITCHING A RIDE WITH THE RUSSIANS.
Spencer: SOME EVEN WONDER IF THE SPACE STATION
IS STILL A WORTHY DESTINATION.
IS THE SCIENCE WORTH THE MONEY?
OR ARE WE GOING THERE
JUST BECAUSE IT'S REALLY HARD TO GO ANY FARTHER?
SPACE EXPLORATION ALWAYS WILL BE INTERTWINED
WITH POLITICAL DEBATE.
EVEN THE PUREST OF SCIENTIFIC ENDEAVORS
CAN'T ESCAPE THE GRAVITY OF BUDGETS.
Nelson: THANK YOU ALL VERY MUCH. THE MEETING IS ADJOURNED.
Spencer: EVEN THE APOLLO MOON MISSIONS WERE CUT SHORT.
AFTER SIX SUCCESSFUL LANDINGS, NASA FACED A CHOICE.
Garvin: THE NASA ADMINISTRATOR WAS ASKED BY THE PRESIDENT,
"OKAY, BUDGETS ARE TOUGH.
YOU HAVE TO MAKE A CHOICE OF YOUR PATH.
YOU CAN'T DO EVERYTHING.
SO, IS IT GONNA BE MORE APOLLOS?
OR A REUSABLE SPACE VEHICLE?"
Spencer: THE LAST FEW MISSIONS OF APOLLO WERE CANCELLED.
Kranz: THAT WAS-- THAT WAS PROBABLY--
IT WAS VERY TOUGH FOR THE TEAMS IN MISSION CONTROL
BECAUSE WE HAD THE HARDWARE.
WE HAD THE TEAM. WE HAD THE TRAINING.
Duke: WE WERE VERY DISAPPOINTED AS ASTRONAUTS,
BECAUSE WE HAD THREE VEHICLES THAT WERE READY TO FLY.
WE'D ALREADY PAID FOR 'EM.
APOLLO 18, 19, AND 20.
Spencer: SO APOLLO 17 TURNED OUT TO BE
THE LAST MISSION TO THE MOON.
Kranz: I WAS THE FLIGHT DIRECTOR FOR THE LAST THREE MISSIONS.
AND ONE OF THE FLIGHT DIRECTOR'S DUTIES
IS TO READ THE MESSAGE
THAT THE PRESIDENT IS GOING TO SEND TO THE CREW
AFTER THEY ARE SAFELY IN ORBIT.
AND THE PUBLIC AFFAIR OFFICER BROUGHT IT DOWN.
AND I SAW THESE WORDS:
"THIS MAY BE THE LAST TIME IN THIS CENTURY
THAT AN AMERICAN WILL EVER BE ON THE SURFACE OF THE MOON."
AND I THOUGHT, GEE, WHAT AN EPITAPH FOR THIS PROGRAM.
WE WOULD BE RETREATING INTO EARTH ORBIT
FOR WHOEVER KNOWS HOW LONG.
Spencer: WE HAVE NOT YET RETURNED TO THE MOON.
BUT IS THERE A REASON TO GO BACK?
IS THERE A REASON TO VISIT A DEAD ROCK 240,000 MILES AWAY?
Duke: LOOKING BACK AT THE EARTH, ESPECIALLY FROM THE MOON,
THE THOUGHT WAS "WE'RE A LONG WAY FROM HOME."
I MEAN, YOU REALIZE YOU ARE A LONG WAY AWAY.
Spencer: WELL, MARS IS ABOUT 1,500 TIMES FARTHER.
Garvin: NOT FACTOR OF TEN-- 1,500.
IN THE HISTORY OF HUMAN EXPLORATION OF ANYTHING,
WE'VE NEVER MADE A LEAP
OF THREE ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE IN ONE STEP.
Spencer: MARS IS RIGHT IN THE CROSSHAIRS
OF THE HUMAN VERSUS ROBOT DEBATE.
IT'S THE NEXT BIG DESTINATION.
THE NEXT BIG DREAM.
Grant: I THINK PEOPLE HAVE HAD A CRUSH ON MARS
FOR A LONG TIME.
PEOPLE ARE REALLY, REALLY INTERESTED--
BECAUSE OF THE FAMILIARITY, BECAUSE OF THE CLOSENESS,
AND BECAUSE OF THE POSSIBILITY
THAT THERE MAY ACTUALLY HAVE BEEN LIFE ON MARS.
Spencer: WE KNOW THAT ROBOTS HAVE DONE AMAZING WORK THERE.
AND MORE ARE ON THE WAY...
LIKE THE MARS SCIENCE LABORATORY,
DUE TO LAND IN 2012.
Garvin: THE MARS SCIENCE LABORATORY.
A MINI COOPER-SIZED ROBOTIC VEHICLE
BRISTLING WITH INSTRUMENTS
WITH A HIGH-TECH VISION SYSTEM INSPIRED BY JAMES CAMERON.
WITH THE ABILITY TO MEASURE THINGS WITHOUT TOUCHING,
WITH A CORE INSTRUMENT PAYLOAD INSIDE ITSELF
THAT CAN TELL YOU WHAT ROCKS ARE MADE OF,
DISCOVER THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE,
THAT CAN LAND IN A PLACE THAT'S COMPELLING.
AND THESE ARE AMAZING CAPABILITIES
THAT JUST A DECADE OR TWO AGO DIDN'T EXIST.
Spencer: MEANWHILE, SENDING HUMANS TO MARS
REMAINS ON THE DRAWING BOARD.
THE OBSTACLES ARE MANY.
Garvin: WE ARE STILL IN PRE-KINDERGARTEN,
IN TERMS OF UNDERSTANDING MARS AS A WORLD.
HUMAN LIFE SUPPORT
FOR A ONE TO THREE-YEAR MISSION IN DEEP SPACE DOES NOT EXIST.
IF YOU'RE GOING TO MARS,
YOU HAVE TO BRING ALL YOUR FOOD AND WATER,
RECYCLE YOUR WASTE,
HAVE ENERGY FOR BACKUP SYSTEMS TO GET HOME IF SOMETHING BREAKS.
SO IF YOU'RE ON MARS, THERE'S NO LIFEBOAT.
Spencer: BUT DESPITE THE OBSTACLES,
MOST AGREE THAT IT'S VERY POSSIBLE, EVEN INEVITABLE.
YOU THINK THAT MARS IS POSSIBLE?
Kranz: I THINK MARS IS ENTIRELY POSSIBLE.
I THINK WE COULD BE TO THE MOON IN FIVE TO SIX YEARS IF--
Spencer: WAIT A MINUTE, TO THE MOON, WHAT DO YOU MEAN?
Kranz: TO ME, I BELIEVE YOU HAVE TO LEARN TO WALK
BEFORE YOU TAKE THIS BIG LEAP.
Spencer: MANY PEOPLE THINK THE FIRST STEP TO MARS
SHOULD BE A RETURN TO THE MOON.
DO YOU SEE THE MOON AS A NECESSARY FIRST STEP,
A JUMPING-OFF POINT, BEFORE WE CAN GO TO MARS?
Spudis: WELL, I SEE IT AS A NECESSARY STEP TO GO ANYWHERE.
BECAUSE IT WAS THE PLACE WHERE WE'RE GOING TO LEARN THE SKILLS
OF A SPACE-FARING PEOPLE.
AND RIGHT NOW, WE HAVE A VERY RUDIMENTARY UNDERSTANDING
OF THOSE SKILLS.
WE DON'T KNOW HOW TO LIVE ON ANOTHER WORLD.
IF YOU WANT TO GO TO MARS,
YOU HAVE TO LEARN HOW TO LIVE, SURVIVE AND THRIVE
ON A PLANETARY SURFACE.
Spencer: BUT COULD WE THRIVE ON THE MOON?
IN 2009, NASA CRASHED A ROCKET AND A PROBE
INTO A DEEP COLD CRATER ON PURPOSE.
THE IMPACT SENT UP DEBRIS
THAT WAS ANALYZED BY AN ORBITING SATELLITE.
AND IN THAT DEBRIS, SCIENTISTS FOUND
METHANE, AMMONIA, CARBON DIOXIDE, AND ICE.
AND YOU CAN DO A LOT WITH WATER.
Spudis: NOW, WATER IS AN EXTREMELY USEFUL SUBSTANCE.
NOT ONLY CAN YOU DRINK IT,
YOU CAN DISSOCIATE IT INTO HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN,
BREATHE THE OXYGEN.
YOU CAN COMBINE HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN IN A FUEL CELL
TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY WHEN YOU DON'T HAVE ANY SUNLIGHT.
BUT THE BEST USE IS LAST.
AND THAT IS, WATER CAN BE MADE
INTO LIQUID OXYGEN AND LIQUID HYDROGEN,
AND THAT'S THE BEST ROCKET PROPELLANT WE KNOW OF
FOR CHEMICAL ROCKETS.
SO THE MOON PROVIDES FOR HUMAN HABITATION
BY PROVIDING WATER.
BUT IT ALSO IS A GAS STATION.
IT'S THE FIRST SERVICE STATION BEYOND LOW EARTH ORBIT.
Spencer: SO EVEN THOUGH THE MOON MAY BE JUST A ROCK,
WE MIGHT BE ABLE TO TURN IT INTO A STEPPING STONE
TO POINTS BEYOND.
WHETHER IT'S A RETURN TO THE MOON OR ON TO MARS,
EVERY SCENARIO FOR HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT
INCLUDES HUMANS AND ROBOTS, TRAVELING TOGETHER.
THE ADVANTAGES OF HUMANS?
SMART, ADAPTABLE, AND INTUITIVE.
BUT IT'S DIFFICULT AND EXPENSIVE TO GET US THERE,
KEEP US ALIVE, AND BRING US HOME.
MEANWHILE, ROBOTS ARE STURDY,
INCREASINGLY DEXTEROUS, AND EXPENDABLE.
BUT THEY AREN'T AS INTUITIVE OR AS FAST.
FOR EXAMPLE, IT TAKES ROUGHLY 15 MINUTES
FOR A COMMAND TO REACH A MARS ROVER,
THEN 15 MINUTES FOR THE ROVER'S RESPONSE
TO BE RECEIVED BACK ON EARTH.
YOU MIGHT SAY THE ROVERS ARE MOVING AT A SNAIL'S PACE.
Aldrin: THE PROGRAM MANAGER OF THAT PROGRAM,
OF SPIRIT AND OPPORTUNITY, HAS SAID IN WRITING
THAT IF HE HAD SOMEBODY CONTROLLING THOSE DIRECTLY,
WHAT THEY HAVE DONE IN FIVE YEARS
COULD HAVE BEEN DONE IN ONE WEEK.
THAT'S THE POWER OF HAVING SOMEBODY CLOSE
DOING THINGS ON THE SURFACE
Spudis: THE ADVANTAGE OF DOING IT WITH PEOPLE
CO-LOCATED WITH YOU ON THE PLANET
IS THAT YOU HAVE AN INSTANTANEOUS REACTION.
YOU DON'T HAVE THE TIME DELAY.
THAT SYNERGY--OF BOTH MACHINES HELPING PEOPLE
AND PEOPLE DOING-- USING MACHINES,
IS REALLY WHAT IS THE ESSENCE OF EXPLORATION.
Spencer: SO HUMANS AND ROBOTS TOGETHER
IS THE BEST-CASE SCENARIO.
AND GOING TO MARS TOGETHER CREATES EXCITING POSSIBILITIES.
HOWEVER, GETTING THERE COULD BE QUITE BORING.
Grant: GOING TO OTHER PLANETS
IS A VERY TIME-CONSUMING THING TO DO.
I CAN'T IMAGINE WHAT YOU WOULD DEAL WITH JUST THE BOREDOM.
THERE'S JUST NOTHING TO DO.
THERE'S NOTHING TO LOOK AT,
OTHER THAN OPERATE THE SPACECRAFT.
AND YOU'RE KIND OF CONFINED,
SO THERE'S NOT A LOT OF PLACES YOU CAN GO.
Spencer: SOME APOLLO ASTRONAUTS COMPARED SPACE TRAVEL
TO A CAMPING TRIP.
CRAMPED QUARTERS.
NO PRIVACY.
BAD FOOD.
AND A LOWER STANDARD OF PERSONAL HYGIENE.
BUT DO-ABLE FOR A WEEK OR TWO.
NOW THERE'S AN EXPERIMENT UNDER WAY
TO TEST OUR TOLERANCE FOR A MUCH LONGER TRIP.
Man: THEY WILL LIVE
AS IF THEY WERE IN AN INTERPLANETARY SPACESHIP.
THEY WILL EAT, SLEEP, AND TRAIN AS IF THEY WERE REAL ASTRONAUTS.
THEY WILL FEEL AS IF THEY WERE ON MARS,
BUT THEY'LL BE SITTING IN MOSCOW.
Spencer: IT'S CALLED MARS 500.
SIX PEOPLE ARE BEING KEPT IN SPACESHIP-LIKE ISOLATION
TO TEST BOTH THE SCIENCE AND PSYCHOLOGY
OF EXTENDED SPACEFLIGHT.
Spencer: WHAT DO YOU THINK OF THIS EXPERIMENT
THAT'S GOING ON WITH THE RUSSIANS AND THE EUROPEANS,
ARE DOING MARS 500, WHERE THEY'RE TESTING PEOPLE
TO SEE WHAT--I GUESS WHAT ISOLATION DOES TO THEM.
McCurdy: SURE. CURRENT PLANS FOR SENDING HUMANS TO MARS
ENVISION A SPACE CAPSULE THAT IS DESIGNED TO PRODUCE HOMICIDES.
[LAUGHTER]
YOU JUST CAN'T LIVE WITH PEOPLE
IN THAT SMALL AND ENCLOSED SPACE.
YOU NEED TO KNOW A LOT ABOUT THAT,
Spencer: BUT STUDIES LIKE THAT ARE, I MEAN, THAT'S CRITICAL.
McCurdy: I THINK YOU HAVE TO DO--
YEAH, YOU'D LIKE TO FIND OUT
IF PEOPLE HAVE ABERRANT PERSONALITIES
BEFORE YOU SEND THEM ON SUCH A MISSION.
Spencer: PSYCHOLOGICAL STRAIN.
PHYSICAL STAMINA.
ENGINEERING CHALLENGES.
WILL HUMANS EVER MAKE IT TO MARS?
Grant: I THINK IF WE MADE UP OUR MIND TO DO IT
AND WE DEDICATED ENOUGH RESOURCES,
WE COULD OVERCOME THOSE TECHNOLOGICAL HURDLES
AND WE COULD GO TO MARS--
BUT I THINK THAT THERE ARE
SO MANY THINGS COMPETING FOR OUR RESOURCES
THAT, UNFORTUNATELY, IT'S A WAYS OFF IN THE FUTURE.
Spencer: HOW FAR OFF?
WE COULDN'T RESIST ASKING EVERYONE TO MAKE A PREDICTION.
WHEN DO YOU THINK THAT MARS WILL HAPPEN?
McCurdy: MARS--I THINK THAT THERE'LL BE HUMANS GOING AROUND MARS--
ORBITING MARS IN ANOTHER 30 YEARS.
I THINK THAT HUMANS WILL LAND ON MARS IN THE NEXT 50 YEARS.
Kranz: I THINK 20 YEARS, EASILY 20 YEARS.
Aldrin: THE MID-2030s, SOMEWHERE IN THERE.
Duke: IF WE SENT A ROBOT TO MARS AND THEY TURN ON THE TV CAMERA
AND THERE'S SOMEBODY WAVING BACK AT US UP THERE,
I MEAN, THAT WOULD REALLY FIRE UP THE SPACE PROGRAM.
Spencer: FOR NOW, MARS IS A PROVING GROUND
FOR ROBOTS ONLY.
BUT IF HUMANS EVER DO GO,
WHAT KINDS OF ROBOTS MIGHT WE BRING WITH US?
MEET ROBONAUT 2, A NASA ROBOT DEVELOPED FOR USE
ON THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
AND PERHAPS BEYOND.
SO THIS R2. THIS IS YOUR BABY.
Yamokoski: YES, IT IS.
Spencer: SHOW ME WHAT IT CAN DO.
Yamokoski: OK.
R2 HAS BEEN DESIGNED TO WORK, LOOK A LOT LIKE A HUMAN BEING.
Spencer: THAT LOOKS EXACTLY LIKE A HUMAN BEING.
Yamokoski: YEAH. HE CAN ACTUALLY TOUCH HIS FIRST THREE FINGERS,
HE CAN PICK UP AN EGG, OR HE CAN PICK UP A DRILL.
Spencer: OOH, THERE HE IS. HELLO.
EVERY MOVEMENT, SIDEWAYS, UPSIDE DOWN, HE CAN ALSO DO.
HE'S SHOWING OFF.
Yamokoski: THAT'S RIGHT.
Spencer: YOU MADE HIM LOOK VERY BUFF.
Yamokoski: YEAH, HE'S MEANT TO LOOK LIKE A HUMAN.
WE'RE SENDING HIM UP THERE, AND WE'RE GOING TO LEARN A LOT
ABOUT HOW TO OPERATE A HUMANOID ROBOT IN SPACE
IN CLOSE PROXIMITY TO OTHER ASTRONAUTS
IN THE ENVIRONMENT THAT WE HAVE UP THERE IN SPACE.
Spencer: BUT HE'S NOT A THINKING BEING.
HE'S A TOOL.
AND IF WE HUMANS WEREN'T SO FRAGILE,
WE WOULDN'T NEED THINGS LIKE THIS, RIGHT?
Yamokoski: YEAH, THERE'S A LOT OF TASKS
THAT ARE EITHER DULL OR TOO DANGEROUS TO DO,
FOR HUMANS TO DO,
AND SO THAT'S EXACTLY WHAT THIS ROBOT WAS DESIGNED TO DO
IS TO WORK ALONGSIDE HUMANS
AND DO THOSE DULL OR DANGEROUS TASKS.
Spencer: SO I'M GOING TO REACH FOR HIS HAND.
HIYA.
THERE WE GO.
Spencer: R2 IS ONE WAY TO DESIGN ROBOTS--
HUMAN HELPERS THAT LOOK RATHER HUMAN--
HEAD, ARMS, AND SO FORTH.
LIKE C3PO OF THE STAR WARS FILMS.
OR THE FAMOUS MARS ROVERS THAT LOOK MORE LIKE OUR PETS,
SNIFFING AROUND AND DOING CHORES IN OUR ABSENCE, LIKE R2D2.
BUT THERE'S ANOTHER ROBOTIC SCENARIO
BEST ILLUSTRATED BY DARTH VADER--
A HYBRID ROBO-HUMAN.
COULD A KINDER, GENTLER DARTH VADER
BE OUR FUTURE ASTRONAUT?
MANFRED CLYNES AND NATHAN KLINE ASKED THAT QUESTION
AS EARLY AS 1960.
McCurdy: THEY WERE DOING WORK ON SPACE RESEARCH AND THEY SAID,
"WELL, YOU KNOW, ONE OF THE WAYS TO HANDLE SPACE EXPLORATION
IS TO FIGURE OUT HOW YOU COULD MERGE VERY ADVANCED MACHINES
WITH ADVANCING HUMANS IN A BIOTECHNOLOGICAL WAY
THAT WOULD MAKE IT POSSIBLE FOR HUMANS TO DO THINGS
A LITTLE BIT BETTER IN SPACE.
AND THAT'S WHERE THE IDEA COMES FROM FOR THE CYBORG.
Launius: CAN WE CHANGE OUR PHYSIOLOGY IN A WAY
SO THAT WE WILL BE ABLE TO NOT MAYBE TAKE UP AS MUCH OXYGEN
AND HAVE TO BREATHE AS MUCH?
CAN WE DO THINGS WITH OUR CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
THAT WILL ENABLE US TO BE MORE EFFECTIVE
IN SURVIVING IN A MICROGRAVITY ENVIRONMENT?
WHAT ABOUT OUR MUSCLES AND OUR BONE TISSUES?
IS THERE WAYS IN WHICH WE MIGHT BE ABLE TO RUGGEDIZE OURSELVES
SO THAT WE CAN SURVIVE IN SPACE MORE EFFECTIVELY?
Spencer: SO YOU'RE TALKING ABOUT CYBORG?
Launius: IN THEORY, WE COULD BECOME A CYBORG.
Spencer: I'M TALKING ABOUT INCORPORATING TRAITS
OF THE ROBOT INTO PEOPLE.
POSSIBLE?
Spudis: I DON'T SEE WHY IT'S NOT POSSIBLE.
I GUESS--I--A MORE FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION IS, IS IT DESIRABLE?
DO YOU REALLY WANT TO CREATE
SOME KIND OF HUMAN MACHINE SYNTHETIC BEING
THAT WOULD DO YOUR EXPLORATION FOR YOU?
I HAVE A FEELING THAT PEOPLE WANT TO GO.
THEY WILL GO AND LIVE ON THE MOON.
THEY WILL EXTRACT THOSE RESOURCES
AND USE THEM TO CREATE NEW CAPABILITY.
THEY WILL GO TO THE PLANETS.
I DON'T KNOW WHAT LANGUAGE THEY'LL SPEAK.
I DON'T KNOW WHO THEY'LL BE.
I DON'T KNOW WHAT THEIR MOTIVATIONS WILL BE.
BUT IT CAN BE DONE.
IT WILL BE DONE.
Spencer: WE WILL ARGUE WHERE TO GO.
WE WILL ARGUE WHEN TO GO.
WE WILL ARGUE HOW TO GET THERE.
BUT WE PROBABLY WILL NOT ARGUE WHY.
DO YOU THINK THAT PEOPLE HAVE
ANY SORT OF INSTINCTIVE NEED TO EXPLORE?
Virts: IT'S BEEN, I THINK, JUST IN OUR BLOOD AND GENES AS HUMANS
TO WANT TO GO SEE WHAT'S OVER THE NEXT HILL.
Astronaut: THE ROVER IS RUNNING, HOUSTON!
Spencer: EVEN AFTER GOING OVER 200,000 MILES
TO GET TO THE MOON,
CHARLIE DUKE COULDN'T RESIST GOING A FEW MORE.
Duke: YOU START DRIVING, AND YOU GO OVER THIS RIDGE
AND "WHAT'S OVER THE NEXT RIDGE?" YOU KNOW?
JUST A NEW ADVENTURE OVER EVERY COUPLE OF HUNDRED YARDS.
THOUGH IT WAS UNINHABITED AND VERY INHOSPITABLE,
WE DIDN'T FEEL THAT WAY.
YOU FELT LIKE YOU BELONGED ON THE MOON.
Spencer: DO WE BELONG ON THE MOON?
DO WE BELONG ON MARS?
DO WE BELONG AMONG THE STARS?
PLANET EARTH ALWAYS WILL BE HOME.
WE HAVE YET TO FIND ANY OTHER PLACE SO PERFECT FOR US.
BUT ON A CLEAR NIGHT, THE STARS TEMPT US.
WHERE COULD WE GO?
WHAT MIGHT BE THERE?
AND WHEN MIGHT WE EVER FIND OUT?
Garvin: WHAT IS HUMAN DESTINY IN SPACE?
I THINK TO KNOW OUR PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE.
BIG OR SMALL, SIGNIFICANT OR INSIGNIFICANT,
TO KNOW OUR PLACE IS EVERYTHING.
Aldrin: THE DESTINY OF HUMANKIND IN SPACE
IS TO EXPAND OUTWARD TO SATISFY THE CURIOSITY THAT WE HAVE.
Duke: SPACE IS LIMITLESS.
Spencer: OBVIOUSLY THERE IS NO WAY TO PREDICT THE FUTURE.
THE PESSIMISTS SEEM TO THINK
THAT WE HAVE SO ABUSED THE PLANET
THAT WE ARE DOOMED.
OPTIMISTS, MEANWHILE, SEE US POPULATING OTHER PLANETS,
ENSURING OUR SURVIVAL.
EITHER WAY, WE ARE SURE TO PUSH THE BOUNDARIES
OF WHAT'S POSSIBLE, ON EARTH AND IN SPACE.
THANKS FOR JOINING US.
I'M SUSAN SPENCER FOR SMITHSONIAN SPOTLIGHT.
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